CLA QUESTIONS:

SPOKEN LANGUAGE
1. What is phonemic expansion and contraction? Explain why this happens.
Occurs during the babbling stage, the number of different phonemes used increases (expansion). However later on at 9 to 10 months the child discards the phonemes (contraction) that aren't part of their native vernacular as they won't need them to communicate. Studies on babies of varying nationalities support this as they make different babbling sounds.

2. How is turn-taking encouraged in early speech development? Why is it important?
Games are often used to teach the 'rules' of turn-taking, such as passing a ball between each other. Children are also told it's 'Mummy's turn' or 'your turn'. Imitation is also key in turn-taking as it signifies anticipation for a turn as well as how to respond. 

3. What is a phoneme and what is a grapheme?
A phoneme is the smallest unit of distinct sound from a word and words are made up of multiple phonemes. Whereas a grapheme is the smallest unit of a word in a writing system, like a certain letter or group of letters.

4. Which phonemes develop later than others? Whose research (‘Fis’ phenomenon) suggests it is articulation rather than not knowing the difference?
Consonants at the ends of words tend to be the last to be fully developed - this is seen in the 'Fis' phenomenon as the child was unable to produce the blended phoneme 'sh'. However this also demonstrates that the child can comprehend the correct phoneme to use before they possess the motor ability to produce the sound.

5. What is a protoword?
Protowords are words (typically cv patterns) such as 'gaga' and 'baba' that mimic the real word the child is attempting to say. For example: Deb Roy's son in his transition to using the word water started saying 'gaga'  then 'wawa' - the protoword. 

6. What is a holophrase?
A holophrase is the first stage of meaningful speech in the prelinguistic stage, where one word is used to express a whole concept/idea (holophrasis). Eg: A child will say 'up' when they want picking up or 'food' when they are hungry.

7. What are the four categories of first words according to Katherine Nelson (1973)?
Naming things - ball, dog, cat, pen
Actions - give, put, up
Social - no, hi, bye-bye
Modifiers - nice, more, that, this

8. What is positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement is encouraging a behaviour by giving a reward such as praise, a smile or a physical treat.

9. What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement is the act of taking away a negative stimulus as a reward for executing a desirable linguistic behaviour.

10. Explain the following stages of children’s linguistic development according to Jean Aitchison:
a. Labelling - linking words to objects and understanding that things can be given names
b. Packaging - exploring where these labels are applicable and stretching these names = over/underextension occurs until confident in meaning
c. Network-building - understanding similarities and differences in words and identifying differences


11. Explain the following stages of children’s linguistic development according to Piaget:
a. Sensorimotor - (Birth - 2 YO) Child is learning about the world through their movements. Object permanence and other ideas are learnt through assimilation and accommodation.
b. Pre-operational -(2 - 7 YO) Use words and images to represent objects/ideas, linking symbols to concepts. Very egocentric and think about things in concrete terms although their language is improving.
c. Concrete operational - (7 - 11 YO) Gain logical thinking processes, understanding conservation and applying these reasoning skills.
d. Formal operational - (12 YO +) Abstract thinking applied to theoretical problems and concepts, more ethical and social debates with reasoning.


12. What is Mean Length Utterance (MLU) and what can it tell us about a child’s language proficiency?
The mean length of utterance is a measure of the number of morphemes (the smallest unit of a word with meaning) in an utterance (an approximate sentence of speech). We assume that the higher the MLU, so the more morphemes per utterance, the more complex the speaking ability of the child.


13. Define the following stages in terms of a child’s grammatical development:
a. One word/holophrastic - One word is used to convey an idea, like 'up' signifies that the child wants to be picked up, 'food' signifies that the child is hungry, etc..
b. Two-word - Mini-sentences with simple semantic relations, slightly more detail than holophrastic stage.
c. Telegraphic - Sentences are not yet fully functional (like a telegram, the sentence includes all the information required for sense to be made of it).
d. Post-telegraphic - Sense of grammar emerges and this is applied to create more complex sentences.

14. What three stages of negative formations did Ursula Bellugi discover in young children?

STAGE 1 - 'No' put at start or end of utterance - 'no wear coat'

STAGE 2 - 'No' placed in the middle and next to a verb - 'I no like it'

STAGE 3 - Use 'don't' or 'can't' - 'I don't want to...'

(STAGE 4 - Use do not or can not correctly and precisely - 'I do not think...')

15. What does LAD stand for? Which theorist suggested we have a LAD? What is a LAD?

Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device / Universal Grammar is the idea that children have an innate sense of grammar and syntax which they apply when learning language. For example they instinctively know how to combine a verb and noun to create a coherent sentence and this is true for children of all languages.

16. What is a virtuous error? Give examples.

The mistakes a child makes when developing their language abilities, typicallt over/under applying certain grammar rules such as adding or forgetting a suffix or getting syntax slightly incorrect. Eg: I runned instead of I ran, he swimmed instead of he was swimming or he swam.

17. What are overextension and underextension? How do they contradict Skinner’s ideas?

Overextension - chid uses a single word to describe many different things: 

BY ANALOGY - inferring a similarity between objects, like referring to anything round as a ball

BY CATEGORY - using one word to label all things in that category, such as calling all animals horse

18. What is Universal Grammar?

(LAD) Children have an innate genetic component to their language understanding and this device aids them in communication.

19. How are Bruner and Vygotsky's theories similar and different? Give examples and use terminology.

Both Vygotsky and Bruner value the importance of socialisation on language development. Bruner highlights the importance of CDS (child-directed speech) and believes that it's a key aid in communication for children - also referred to as scaffolding which links to Vygotsky. The ZPD is based on the principle that children have different zones to their knowledge and to reach their full potential assistance from adults is required and this is called scaffolding. Assistance can be anything from general encouragement or specific demonstration/instruction. Due to this theories, both Bruner and Vygotsky fall on the nurture side of the CLA debate.

However Bruner's theory has a slight biological link in its stage theory. Bruner believes that as children grow older their intelligent minds create different coding systems and this is the reason for certain behaviours expressing themselves at certain ages - such as a baby making a rattle shaking action w/out the rattle as in the enactive representation stage any memories are action-based. Vygotsky's theory is purely focused on socialisation and cooperative learning. As the child gets older the actions that others involve them in mature and so their development progresses.

20. How are Halliday and Dore’s categories similar and different?

Both theorists agree that child language focuses on needs and requesting actions, such as asking for a parent to do something for them however their reasons why differ. Halliday believes that these demands are used to satisfy a particular need but also to control and influence the behaviour of others. Whereas Dore simply thinks that these are demands without any motive to control or be dominant. Halliday's categories focus more on wider explanations for language such heuristic - used to widen understanding of their surrounding environment. Dore on the other hand views child speech as more basic and believes techniques are used to gain attention (calling) and to greet others rather than aid their cognitive development. 

21. What is egocentric speech?

Repetitive phrases that a child speaks when alone as a method of practising what they've learnt - eg: a running commentary on what they're playing with their toys. 

22. Child-led discourse?

*couldn't find anything online so I guessed*

Child-led discourse is the name given to conversation initiated by the child. They may use items in their surroundings (local topics) to base conversation on and use interrogatives to direct conversation.

23. What are some useful features of CDS to discuss in an essay and why?

GRAMMAR - simpler constructions with fewer verbs, modifiers and adjectives, links to Deb Roy's findings that just before a word is added to a a child's vocabulary, those around them use the word in basic syntactic structures

PRAGMATICS - support, signified linguistically through expansions and re-castings but also through body language. Highlights importance of socialisation and support from others to develop language rather than simply stating lang comes from a biological device. Also evidence for Vygotsky's scaffolding.

LEXIS AND SEMANTICS - increased used of dynamic verbs and concrete nouns, supports Nelson's theory of the word categories first established.

24. What does recast/reformulation mean?

Reformulation is a type of modelling in which an adult repeats back an utterance said by the child however they correct any errors. Eg: 'mummy me want the ball please', 'you mean i want the ball please'. Positively reinforces the correct uses by repeating them back and also corrects non-standard uses.

25. What does LASS stand for and whose theory is it?

Bruner's LASS was created in opposition to Chomsky's LAD - parents support/scaffold linguistic development by frequently asking the child questions and actively using their surroundings to trigger conversation (eg: paralinguistic traits like pointing). Emphasises socialisation as opposed to biology and nativism like Chomsky. 

26. Define the following theories and say who the theorist(s) are for each:

a. Nativist - Chomsky, language is innate and each child has a natural sense for syntax and grammar for their specific language.

b. Behaviourist - Skinner, applies behaviourist laws of operant conditioning and reinforcement to language development.

c. Social interactionist - Vygotsky/Bruner, interaction and social scaffolding aids communication. 

d. Cognitive - Piaget, language development is parallel with cognitive development and is gained as a result of children learning logic and reasoning.

e. Critical period - Lenneberg, ends around puberty when the brain decreases in plasticity, if a language isn't learnt by this point the child will never be fluent.